Abstract

The objective of this paper is to unveil a novel damping mechanism exhibited by 3D woven lattice materials (3DW), with emphasis on response to high-frequency excitations. Conventional bulk damping materials, such as rubber, exhibit relatively low stiffness, while stiff metals and ceramics typically have negligible damping. Here we demonstrate that high damping and structural stiffness can be simultaneously achieved in 3D woven lattice materials by brazing only select lattice joints, resulting in a load-bearing lattice frame intertwined with free, ‘floating’ lattice members to generate damping. The produced material samples are comparable to polymers in terms of damping coefficient, but are porous and have much higher maximum use temperature. We shed light on a novel damping mechanism enabled by an interplay between the forcing frequency imposed onto a load-bearing lattice frame and the motion of the embedded, free-moving lattice members. This novel class of damping metamaterials has potential use in a broad range of weight sensitive applications that require vibration attenuation at high frequencies.

Introduction

Architected materials are multi-phase and/or cellular materials in which the topological distribution of the phases is carefully controlled and optimized for specific functions or properties. Nearly two decades of research has resulted in the identification of a number of topologically simple, easy to fabricate, well established structures (including honeycombs and truss lattices), which have been optimized for specific stiffness and strength, impact and blast protection, sound absorption, wave dispersion, active cooling and combinations thereof.

Over the past few years, dramatic advances in processing techniques, including polymer-based templating (e.g., stereolithography, photopolymer waveguide prototyping, two-photon polymerization) and direct single- or multi-material formation (e.g., direct laser sintering, deformed metal lattices, 3D weaving and knitting), have enabled fabrication of new architected materials with complex geometry and remarkably precise control over the geometric arrangement of solid phases and voids from the nanometer to the centimeter scale.

The ordered, topologically complex nature of these materials and the degree of precision with which their features can now be defined suggests the development of new multi-physics and multi-scale modeling tools that can enable optimal designs.  The result is efficient multi-scale cellular materials with unprecedented ranges of density, stiffness, strength, energy absorption, permeability, chemical reactivity, wave/matter interaction and other multifunctional properties, which promise dramatic advances across important technology areas such as lightweight structures, functional coatings, bio-scaffolds, catalyst supports, photonic/phononic systems and other applications.

Some of the most exciting recent developments in this field are the exploration of size effects in the development of nano-architected materials with superior combinations of properties, the investigation of geometrically complex unit cell architectures that enable non-linear effective mechanical response from linear-elastic materials, novel manufacturing approaches with increased resolution and scalability, and improved design optimization tools. Here we briefly review some recent progress in these areas, and conclude with some thoughts about opportunities for future development. The collection of articles in this focus issue is a wonderful exposure to some of the latest original work in this field.

Abstract

In this article, we study the computational design of multiphase architected materials comprising a stiff phase, a dissipative phase, and void space, with enhanced vibration damping characteristics under wave propagation. We develop a topology optimization framework that maximizes a figure of merit comprising of effective stiffness, density and effective damping. We also propose novel material interpolation strategies to avoid the blending of different phases at any given point in the design domain. This is achieved by carefully defining different penalization schemes for different components of the merit function. The effective stiffness of the periodic multiphase material is calculated using homogenization theory and the Bloch–Floquet theorem is used to obtain its damping capacity, allowing for the investigation of the effect of wave directionality, material microarchitecture and intrinsic material properties on the wave attenuation characteristics. It is shown that the proposed topology optimization framework allows for systematic tailoring of microstructure of the multiphase materials for wide ranges of frequencies and densities and results in the identification of optimized multiphase cellular designs with void space that are superior to fully dense topologies.

Abstract

Viscoelastic materials are commonly used to dissipate kinetic energy in case of impact and vibrations. Unfortunately, dissipating large amounts of energy in a monolithic material requires high combinations of two intrinsic properties – Young’s modulus and loss factor, which are generally in conflict. This limitation can be overcome by designing cellular materials incorporating negative stiffness elements. Here we investigate a configuration comprising two positive stiffness elements and one negative stiffness element. This unit cell possesses an internal degree of freedom, which introduces hysteresis under a loading-unloading cycle, resulting in substantial energy dissipation, while maintaining stiffness. We demonstrate and optimize a simple implementation in a single material design that does not require external stabilization or pre-compression of buckled elements; these key features make it amenable to fabrication by virtually any additive manufacturing approach (from 3D printing to assembly and brazing) in a wide range of base materials (from polymers to metals). No additional intrinsic damping mechanism is required for the base material, which is assumed linear elastic. Furthermore, the architected material can be designed to be fully recoverable. When optimized, these architected materials exhibit extremely high combinations of Young’s modulus and damping, far superior to those of each constituent phase.

Abstract

In 1903, Alexander Graham Bell developed a design principle to generate lightweight, mechanically robust lattice structures based on triangular cells; this has since found broad application in lightweight design. Over one hundred years later, the same principle is being used in the fabrication of nanolattice materials, namely lattice structures composed of nanoscale constituents. Taking advantage of the size-dependent properties typical of nanoparticles, nanowires, and thin films, nanolattices redefine the limits of the accessible material-property space throughout different disciplines. Herein, the exceptional mechanical performance of nanolattices, including their ultrahigh strength, damage tolerance, and stiffness, are reviewed, and their potential for multifunctional applications beyond mechanics is examined. The efficient integration of architecture and size-affected properties is key to further develop nanolattices. The introduction of a hierarchical architecture is an effective tool in enhancing mechanical properties, and the eventual goal of nanolattice design may be to replicate the intricate hierarchies and functionalities observed in biological materials. Additive manufacturing and self-assembly techniques enable lattice design at the nanoscale; the scaling-up of nanolattice fabrication is currently the major challenge to their widespread use in technological applications.

Abstract

We report on a new class of elastic architected materials with hybrid unit cells, consisting of discrete elastic elements with non-convex strain energy and one convex (but possibly nonlinear) elastic element, to obtain a reversible multifunctional material with extreme energy dissipation. The proposed design exploits numerically optimized nonlinearities in the force–displacement response of the sub-unit-cell elements to approach the theoretical limit of specific damping capacity in any material, Psi_th=8. Specific damping capacities up to  Psi=6.02 were experimentally demonstrated, which are far greater than any experimental value previously reported, including in high damping elastomers (Psi<4.5). Remarkably, this damping performance is achieved even with a single unit cell, thus avoiding the need for thick multi-cell designs. Furthermore, the proposed design offers relatively high stiffness and low transmitted stress upon compression. The proposed concept could enable the design of reversible impact-resistant structures with superior crashworthiness and energy dissipation.

Abstract

Multistable shape-reconfigurable architected materials encompassing living hinges and enabling combinations of high strength, high volumetric change, and complex shape-morphing patterns are introduced. Analytical and numerical investigations, validated by experiments, are performed to characterize the mechanical behavior of the proposed materials. The proposed architected materials can be constructed from virtually any base material, at any length scale and dimensionality.

This article was featured in a Nature Research Highlight, Nature 535 (07/2016) 32

Abstract

The epidemiology of valvular heart disease has significantly changed in the past few decades with aging as one of the main contributing factors. The available options for replacement of diseased valves are currently limited to mechanical and bioprosthetic valves, while the tissue engineered ones that are under study are currently far from clinical approval. The main problem with the tissue engineered heart valves is their progressive deterioration that leads to regurgitation and/or leaflet thickening a few months after implantation. The use of bioresorbable scaffolds is speculated to be one factor affecting these valves’ failure. We have previously developed a non-degradable superelastic nitinol mesh scaffold concept that can be used for heart valve tissue engineering applications. It is hypothesized that the use of a non-degradable superelastic nitinol mesh may increase the durability of tissue engineered heart valves, avoid their shrinkage, and accordingly prevent regurgitation. The current work aims to study the effects of the design features on mechanical characteristics of this valve scaffold to attain proper function prior to in vivo implantation.

Abstract

The search for light yet strong materials recently benefited from novel high resolution 3D-printing technologies, which allow for fabricating lightweight porous materials with optimally designed micro-topologies. Architectural design improves mechanical properties significantly compared to stochastic porosity, as in foams. Miniaturization of the architectures offers to exploit material strengthening size-effects occurring at the nanoscale. However, these effects and their interaction with structural behavior are not yet well understood. We present tensile experiments of nanoscale alumina–polymer composite bars and cellular microarchitectures, applying 3D-printed push-to-pull mechanisms. The strength of alumina is found to strongly increase as the material thickness decreases. Below 50 nm thickness a plateau at about 5.5 GPa is reached, which is in the range of the theoretical strength. The characteristic low tensile strength of ceramics and its high variability seem not to hold at the nanoscale. Thus, when designed and fabricated appropriately, microarchitectures will facilitate carrying these size-effects beyond scales in future, allowing the use of ceramic materials far beyond what is possible to date.

Abstract

3D tissue culture models are utilized to study breast cancer and other pathologies because they better capture the complexity of in vivo tissue architecture compared to 2D models. However, to mimic the in vivoenvironment, the mechanics and geometry of the ECM must also be considered. Here, we studied the mechanical environment created in two 3D models, the overlay protocol (OP) and embedded protocol (EP). Mammary epithelial acini features were compared using OP or EP under conditions known to alter acinus organization, i.e. collagen crosslinking and/or ErbB2 receptor activation. Finite element analysis and active microrheology demonstrated that OP creates a physically asymmetric environment with non-uniform mechanical stresses in radial and circumferential directions. Further contrasting with EP, acini in OP displayed cooperation between ErbB2 signalling and matrix crosslinking. These differences in acini phenotype observed between OP and EP highlight the functional impact of physical symmetry in 3D tissue culture models.

Abstract

Abstract

In this article, we propose a method to incorporate fabrication cost in the topology optimization of light and stiff truss structures and periodic lattices. The fabrication cost of a design is estimated by assigning a unit cost to each truss element, meant to approximate the cost of element placement and associated connections. A regularized Heaviside step function is utilized to estimate the number of elements existing in the design domain. This makes the cost function smooth and differentiable, thus enabling the application of gradient-based optimization schemes. We demonstrate the proposed method with classic examples in structural engineering and in the design of a material lattice, illustrating the effect of the fabrication unit cost on the optimal topologies. We also show that the proposed method can be efficiently used to impose an upper bound on the allowed number of elements in the optimal design of a truss system. Importantly, compared to traditional approaches in structural topology optimization, the proposed algorithm reduces the computational time and reduces the dependency on the threshold used for element removal.

Abstract

Recent progress in micro- and nanofabrication techniques enables the creation of hierarchically architected microlattices with dimensional control over six orders of magnitude, from centimeters down to nanometers. This hierarchical control facilitates the exploration of opportunities to exploit nano-sized material effects in structural materials. In this work, we present the fabrication, characterization, and properties of hollow metallic glass NiP microlattices. The wall thicknesses, deposited by electroless plating, were varied from %60 nm up to 600 nm, resulting in relative densities spanning from 0.02 to 0.2%. Uniaxial quasi-static compression tests revealed two different regimes in deformation: (i) Structures with a wall thickness above 150 nm failed by catastrophic failure at the nodes and fracture events at the struts, with significant micro- cracking and (ii) Lattices whose wall thickness was below 150 nm failed initially via buckling followed by significant plastic deformation rather than by post-elastic catastrophic fracture. This departure in deformation mechanism from brittle to deformable exhibited by the thin-walled structures is discussed in the framework of brittle-to-ductile transition emergent in nano-sized metallic glasses.

Abstract

When properly designed at ultra-low density, hollow metallic microlattices can fully recover from compressive strains in excess of 50%, while dissipating a considerable portion of the elastic strain energy. This article investigates the physical mechanisms responsible for energy loss upon compressive cycling, and attributes the most significant contribution to a unique form of structural damping, whereby elastic local buckling of individual bars releases energy upon loading. Subsequently, a simple mechanical model is presented to capture the relationship between lattice geometry and structural damping. The model is used to optimize the microlattice geometry for maximum damping performance. The conclusions show that hollow metallic microlattices exhibit exceptionally large values of the damping figure of merit, (Young’s modulus)^(1/3) (loss coefficient)/(density), but this performance requires very low relative densities (<1%), thus limiting the amount of energy that can be dissipated.

Abstract

Recent progress in advanced manufacturing enables fabrication of macro-scale hollow metallic lattices with unit cells in the millimeter range and sub-unit cell features at the submicron scale. If designed to minimize mass, these metallic microlattices can be manufactured with densities lower than 1 mg/cm3, making them the lightest metallic materials ever demonstrated. Measuring the compressive stiffness of these ultralight lattices with conventional contact techniques presents a major challenge, as the lattices buckle or locally fracture immediately after contact with the loading platens is established, with associated reduction in stiffness. Non-contact resonant approaches have been successfully used in the past for modulus measurements in solid materials, at both small and large scales. In this work we demonstrate that Laser Doppler Vibrometry coupled with Finite Elements Analysis is a suitable technique for the reliable extraction of the Young’s modulus in ultralight microlattices.

Abstract

This paper presents a two-degree-of-freedom analytical model for the electromechanical response of double ended tuning fork (DETF) force sensors. The model describes the mechanical interaction between the tines and allows investigation of the effect of a number of asymmetries, in tine stiffness, mass, electromechanical parameters and load sharing between the tines. These asymmetries are introduced during fabrication (e.g., as a result of undercut) and are impossible to completely eliminate in a practical design. The mechanical coupling between the tines induces a frequency separation between the in-phase and the out-of-phase resonant modes. The magnitude of this separation and the relative intensity of the two modes are affected by all the asymmetries mentioned above. Two key conclusions emerge: (i) as the external axial compressive load is increased, the in-phase mode reaches zero frequency (buckling) much faster than the out-of-phase (i.e., operational) mode, resulting in a device with a decreased load range. (ii) During the operation, balanced excitation is essential to guarantee that the out-of-phase mode remain significantly stronger than the in-phase mode, thus allowing sharp phase locked loop locking and hence robust performance. The proposed model can be used to assess the magnitude of asymmetries introduced by a given manufacturing process and accurately predict the performance of DETF force sensors. For the specific sensor characterized in this study, the proposed model can capture the full dynamic response of the DETF and accurately predict its maximum axial compressive load; by contrast, the conventional single-DOF model does not capture peak splitting and overpredicts the maximum load by ~18%. The proposed model fits the measured frequency response of the electromechanical system and its load-frequency data with coefficient of determination (R²) of 95.4% (0.954) and 99.2% (0.992), respectively.

Abstract

Abstract

Molecular dynamics simulations of nanocrystalline Ni revealed that the in-plane Young’s modulus of 2.2 nm grained Ni film with 10 grains across its thickness was only 0.64% smaller than that of bulk, while it dropped to 24.1% below bulk value for ~1 grain across film. This size dependence arises from the increased number of more compliant grains adjacent to the free surface. Simulations of nanocrystalline diamond revealed that the anharmonicity of the potential curve determined the sensitivity of the Young’s modulus to variations in the sample size.

Abstract

Recent advances in multiscale manufacturing enable fabrication of hollow-truss based lattices with dimensional control spanning seven orders of magnitude in length scale (from ;50 nm to ;10 cm), thus enabling the exploitation of nano-scale strengthening mechanisms in a macroscale cellular material. This article develops mechanical models for the compressive strength of hollow microlattices and validates them with a selection of experimental measurements on nickel microlattices over a wide relative density range (0.01–10%). The limitations of beam-theory-based analytical approaches for ultralight designs are emphasized, and suitable numerical (finite elements) models are presented. Subsequently, a novel computational platform is utilized to efficiently scan the entire design space and produce maps for optimally strong designs. The results indicate that a strong compressive response can be obtained by stubby lattice designs at relatively high densities (~10%) or by selectively thickening the nodes at ultra-low densities.

Abstract

This paper presents a resonant double-ended tuning fork (DETF) force sensor with an experimentally demonstrated resolution of 7 nN and a compressive load range of 0.08 N, exceeding a dynamic range of 140 dB (100 parts per billion). The resonator has a scale factor of 216 kHz/N, a Q-factor exceeding 60 000 at 3-mtorr ambient pressure, and a zero-load resonant frequency of 47.6 kHz. The resonator is kept at resonance via a phase-locked loop composed of discrete elements. The sensor is implemented with a silicon-on-glass process with a 100-μm-thick 111 silicon structural layer. The sensor and the complete readout circuit are fully embedded in a compact 65 mm × 52 mm printed circuit board (PCB). The outof-plane parasitic modes of the DETF are also investigated with finite-element simulations and laser Doppler vibrometry experiments, and are verified to be outside of the device working range. The PCB is mounted on a microstage and coupled with an off-the-shelf displacement actuator to realize an economical, versatile, and robust micromechanical test frame with unprecedented combination of force and displacement resolution and range.

Abstract

Novel nickel-based microlattice materials with structural hierarchy spanning three different length scales (nm, μm, mm) are characterized microstructurally and mechanically. These materials are produced by plating a sacrificial template obtained by self-propagating photopolymer waveguide prototyping. Ni–P films with a thickness of 120 nm to 3 μm are deposited by electroless plating, whereas thicker films (5–26 μm) are obtained by subsequent electrodeposition of a pure Ni layer. This results in cellular materials spanning three orders of magnitude in relative density, from 0.01% to 8.5%. The thin electroless Ni–P films have ultra-fine grain size (7 nm) and a yield strength of ∼2.5 GPa, whereas the thicker electrodeposited Ni films exhibit a much broader distribution with average grain size of 116 nm and strong (1 0 0) texture in the plating direction, resulting in a yield strength of ∼1 GPa. Uniaxial compression experiments reveal two distinct mechanical responses. At ultra-low densities (<0.1%), these lattices exhibit nearly full recovery after strains up to more than 50%, and damping coefficients an order of magnitude larger than for conventional Ni foams. At higher densities (0.1–10%), the compression behavior is fully plastic, similar to traditional cellular metals. A simple mechanical analysis reveals that the transition occurs when the thickness-to-diameter ratio of the truss elements is of the order of the yield strain of the material, in agreement with experimental observations. Optical and electron imaging of deformed lattices show that the deformation largely localizes around the nodes. In the ultra-light regime, the microlattice materials are stiffer and stronger than any existing alternative.

Abstract

Ultralight (<10 milligrams per cubic centimeter) cellular materials are desirable for thermal insulation; battery electrodes; catalyst supports; and acoustic, vibration, or shock energy damping. We present ultralight materials based on periodic hollow-tube microlattices. These materials are fabricated by starting with a template formed by self-propagating photopolymer waveguide prototyping, coating the template by electroless nickel plating, and subsequently etching away the template. The resulting metallic microlattices exhibit densities ρ ≥ 0.9 milligram per cubic centimeter, complete recovery after compression exceeding 50% strain, and energy absorption similar to elastomers. Young’s modulus E scales with density as E ~ ρ², in contrast to the E ~ ρ³ scaling observed for ultralight aerogels and carbon nanotube foams with stochastic architecture. We attribute these properties to structural hierarchy at the nanometer, micrometer, and millimeter scales.

Abstract

Cellular materials with periodic architectures have been extensively investigated over the past decade for their potential to provide multifunctional solutions for a variety of applications, including lightweight thermo-structural panels, blast resistant structures, and high-authority morphing components. Stiffer and stronger than stochastic foams, periodic cellular materials lend themselves well to geometry optimization, enabling a high degree of tailorability and superior performance benefits. This article reviews a commonly established optimal design protocol, extensively adopted at the macro-scale for both single and multifunctional structures. Two prototypical examples are discussed: the design of strong and lightweight sandwich beams subject to mechanical loads and the combined material/ geometry optimization of actively cooled combustors for hypersonic vehicles. With this body of literature in mind, we present a motivation for the development of micro-architected materials, namely periodic multiscale cellular materials with overall macroscopic dimensions yet with features (such as the unit cell or subunit cell constituents) at the micro- or nano-scale. We review a suite of viable manufacturing approaches and discuss the need for advanced experimental tools, numerical models, and optimization strategies. In analyzing challenges and opportunities, we conclude that the technology is approaching maturity for the development of micro-architected materials with unprecedented combinations of properties (e.g., specific stiffness and strength), with tremendous potential impact on a number of fields.

Abstract

Abstract

Abstract

Methods for tuning extracellular matrix (ECM) mechanics in 3D cell culture that rely on increasing the concentration of either protein or cross-linking molecules fail to control important parameters such as pore size, ligand density, and molecular diffusivity. Alternatively, ECM stiffness can be modulated independently from protein concentration by mechanically loading the ECM. We have developed a novel device for generating stiffness gradients in naturally derived ECMs, where stiffness is tuned by inducing strain, while local mechanical properties are directly determined by laser tweezers based active microrheology (AMR). Hydrogel substrates polymerized within 35 mm diameter Petri dishes are strained non-uniformly by the precise rotation of an embedded cylindrical post, and exhibit a position-dependent stiffness with little to no modulation of local mesh geometry. Here we present the device in the context of fibrin hydrogels. First AMR is used to directly measure local micromechanics in unstrained hydrogels of increasing fibrin concentration. Changes in stiffness are then mapped within our device, where fibrin concentration is held constant. Fluorescence confocal imaging and orbital particle tracking are used to quantify structural changes in fibrin on the micro and nano levels respectively. The micromechanical strain stiffening measured by microrheology is not accompanied by ECM microstructural changes under our applied loads, as measured by confocal microscopy. However, super-resolution orbital tracking reveals nanostructural straightening, lengthening, and reduced movement of fibrin fibers. Furthermore, we show that aortic smooth muscle cells cultured within our device are morphologically sensitive to the induced mechanical gradient. Our results demonstrate a powerful cell culture tool that can be used in the study of mechanical effects on cellular physiology in naturally derived 3D ECM tissues.

Abstract

Lightweight yet stiff and strong lattice structures are attractive for various engineering applications, such as cores of sandwich shells and components designed for impact mitigation.
Recent breakthroughs in manufacturing enable efficient fabrication of hierarchically architected microlattices, with dimensional control spanning seven orders of magnitude in length scale. These materials have the potential to exploit desirable nanoscale-size effects in a macroscopic structure, as long as their mechanical behavior at each appropriate scale nano, micro, and macro levels is properly understood. In this letter, we report the nanomechanical response of individual microlattice members. We show that hollow nanocrystalline Ni cylinders differing only in wall thicknesses, 500 and 150 nm, exhibit strikingly different collapse modes: the 500 nm sample collapses in a brittle manner, via a single strain burst, while the 150 nm sample shows a gradual collapse, via a series of small and discrete strain bursts. Further, compressive strength in 150 nm sample is 99.2% lower than predicted by shell buckling theory, likely due to localized buckling and fracture events observed during in situ compression experiments. We attribute this difference to the size-induced transition in deformation behavior, unique to nanoscale, and discuss it in the framework of “size effects” in crystalline strength.

Abstract

This Letter describes the shock-induced amorphization of single-crystal Si bombarded by nanodroplets. At impact velocities of several kilometers per second, the projectiles trigger strong compression pulses lasting tens of picoseconds. The phase transition, confirmed via transmission electron microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction, takes place when the projectile’s stagnation pressure is approximately 15 GPa. We speculate that the amorphization results either from the decompression of the
beta-Sn phase or during the compression of the diamond phase.

Abstract

This paper presents the design, optimization and manufacturing of a novel micro-fabricated load cell based on a double-ended tuning fork. The device geometry and operating voltages are optimized for maximum force resolution and range, subject to a number of manufacturing and electromechanical constraints. All optimizations are enabled by analytical modeling (verified by selected finite elements analyses) coupled with an efficient C++ code based on the particle swarm optimization algorithm. This assessment indicates that force resolutions of ∼0.5–10 nN are feasible in vacuum (∼1–50 mTorr), with force ranges as large as 1 N. Importantly, the optimal design for vacuum operation is independent of the desired range, ensuring versatility. Experimental verifications on a sub-optimal device fabricated using silicon-on-glass technology demonstrate a resolution of ∼23 nN at a vacuum level of ∼50 mTorr. The device demonstrated in this article will be integrated in a hybrid micro-mechanical test frame for unprecedented combinations of force resolution and range, displacement resolution and range, optical (or SEM) access to the sample, versatility and cost.